Governing genetically modified crops for sustainable agriculture: A responsible innovation analysis of five GM crop cases in India

Genetically modified (GM) crops represent a significant area of plant biotechnology with potential implications for agricultural productivity, food security, climate resilience, and sustainable agricultural development. At the same time, their development and deployment raise questions concerning biosafety, environmental sustainability, farmer interests, public participation, equity, transparency, and the legitimacy of technological decision-making. This paper examines the governance of GM crops in India through the framework of Responsible Innovation (RI), focusing on how technological development and regulatory decision-making can better respond to societal and environmental needs. The study undertakes a comparative analysis of five GM crop case studies: Bt cotton, GM maize, Bt brinjal, GM mustard, and GM rubber. These cases represent different stages and trajectories of GM crop development, research, regulation, commercialisation, and public debate in India. Using policy and regulatory documents, scientific literature, and stakeholder perspectives, the study maps the governance arrangements surrounding these crops and examines how questions of technological purpose, scientific evidence, stakeholder participation, regulatory oversight, sustainability, and distributional consequences are addressed. The analysis is structured around three dimensions of Responsible Innovation purpose, process, and outcomes and incorporates key RI principles including anticipation, reflection, openness and transparency, stakeholder diversity and inclusion, fairness, accessibility, accountability, and adaptive governance. The comparative analysis identifies both common governance challenges and crop-specific differences arising from the technological characteristics, agricultural contexts, regulatory histories, and stakeholder configurations associated with each case. The paper proposes an RI-informed governance framework for GM crops in India that moves beyond a predominantly risk-centred approach toward more anticipatory, inclusive, transparent, and adaptive decision-making. By connecting plant biotechnology with responsible governance, the study contributes to ongoing discussions on how GM technologies can be evaluated and governed in ways that support sustainable agriculture while remaining responsive to diverse societal and environmental priorities.
 Keywords: Genetically Modified Crops; Bt Cotton; GM Maize; Bt Brinjal; GM Mustard; GM Rubber; Responsible Innovation; Plant Biotechnology; Sustainable Agriculture; Biotechnology Governance; India